QUANTUM NUMBERS at a glance

 

Rules guiding the arrangement of electrons in an atom

When electrons are arranged or filled into the atoms of elements, certain RULES are considered  0 and obeyed. These rules are the Aufbau's Principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.

PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE 

states that NO two electrons in the same atom have the sets of the four quantum numbers {n, l, m and s in an atom}.

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE states that "when electrons go into atoms they fill orbitals of lower energy first before filling orbitals of higher energy and each orbital may hold up to two electrons.

 

HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY state that " When electrons fill degenerate orbitals they go in singly first before pairing up occurs.

 Degenerate Orbitals are orbitals that are at the same energy level. example of degenerate orbitals is the P-orbital, the d-orbital or the f-orbital

Examples of degenerate orbitals are the P-orbitals,  the d-orbitals  and the f-orbitals 

QUANTUM NUMBERS

The quantum numbers are a set of numbers that describes the position of an electron in an atom. 

Studies have showed  that the energy of an electron may be characterized by four quantum numbers. These quantum numbers help to locate the position of electrons in an atom

1. The principal quantum number represented by n with integral values of 1,2,3,4 e.t.c.

This quantum number describes the shell ( k, l, m....)

2. The subsidiary or Azimuthal quantum number represented by l with integral values ranging from 0 to (n-1).

This quantum number describes the sub-shells ( s,p,d,f,)

3.  The magnetic quantum number represented by m with integral values ranging from –l ,0, +l.

4. The spin quantum number represented by s with integral values – ¹/₂ and + ¹/₂.

Element   At. Numb.  Elect. Conf.

 H .            1;             1s¹

He              2;         1s²

Li.               3;         1s² 2s¹

Be              4;          1s² 2s²

B =.           5;          1s² 2s² 2p¹

C =            6;          1s² 2s² 2p²

N =.          7 ;         1s²2s²2p3      

O=            8 ;       1s² 2s² 2p⁴

F=.           9;         1s² 2s² 2p⁵

Ne=        10;         1s² 2s² 2p⁶

Na=.         11;        1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹

Mg=          12;     1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s²

Al=.        13;   1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p¹

Si =       14;    1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p²

P=.       15;     1s² 2s² 2p⁶3s²³3p³

S =.       16;   1s² 2² 2p⁶3s² 3p⁴

Cl =.    17;     1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁵

Ar =.   18      1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s²3p⁶

K=.    19  1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s²3p⁶ 4s¹

Ca =.  20  1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s²3p⁶ 4s²

OBJECTIV QUESTION

1.  Which of the following orbitals is spherical in shape?

     (a) s

      (b) p

      (c) d 

      (d) f

  

2.     Which of the following shells have a maximum of eight electrons?

             (a)  K

             (b) L 

             (c) M 

             (d) N

3.     1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3p¹ is the electronic configuration of

              (a)  potassium

               (b) calcium 

               (c) sodium

              (d) aluminum.

4  . “Two electrons in an atom cannot have the same set for all four quantum numbers”. This statement is

              (a)  Aufbau principle 

               (b) Pauli exclusion 

               (c) Hund’s rule

              (d) Rutherford’s model.

5.    Which of the quantum number is represented by L?

              (a)  principal quantum number

              (b) subsidiary quantum number                  

              (c) magnetic quantum number

              (d) spin quantum.

6.    Pauli exclusion principles related 

a). quantity of electrons in the valence shell

b). filling the orbitals with lower energy first 

c). the filling of degenerate orbitals 

d). quantum numbers of electrons.

7. Atomic orbital is 

a). the circular path through which electrons which electrons revolve round the nucleus 

b). a region around the nucleus where electrons are most likely to be found 

c). the path around the nucleus through which electrons move 

d). the path around the nucleus through which protons move.

THEORY QUESTIONS 

  1(a)(i)what are the quantum numbers 

   (ii). The models below represent the filling of orbitals in an atom

   

State which rule(s) is/are violated or obeyed by each model

(iii).     State the following principle (a) Pauli exclusion principle. (b) Aufbau principle

(b). Write the electronic configuration of 

(i) Oxygen   (ii) Calcium (iii) Fluoride ion (Cl^-) (iv) Potassium ion  (K⁺)    (v). Aluminum ion (Al³⁺

2.a(i). List the quantum numbers that are assigned to an electron in an atom.

(ii) what is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy the 3d orbital?

3.(a)State 

I.  Pauli's exclusion principle 

ii. Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity

iii. Write the electronic configuration of of each of the following ions of copper I. Cu+ 

II. Cu2+.       [29Cu]

THE HALOGENS at a glance

 

HALOGENS

Halogens (salt formers) are found in group VII of the periodic table. They are the most reactive nonmetals. They have seven electrons in their outermost shells and so ionize to form univalent negative ions. They exist as diatomic molecules. They are coloured and they form electrovalent compounds with metals.

 They include are chlorine, fluorine, bromine, iodine and astatine.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF HALOGENS 

The halogens have one electron short of the noble gas structure in their  electronic configuration (i.e.  they contains seven electrons in their outermost shells), and the readiness to complete the octet arrangement by receiving an electron makes the halogens very reactive.

The electronic configurations of the halogens are shown below: 

   Fluorine = 9: 1s² 2s² 2p⁵

   Chlorine = 17: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁵

  Bromine = 35: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁵

 Iodine   = 53: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁵

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE HALOGENS

1.  They are univalent, and readily accept one electron from other atoms to form ionic compounds (especially from metals e.g Na & K). They also share electrons with themselves or with non-metals to form covalent compounds.

2.   They exist as diatomic molecules.

3.  Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine a solid.

4.   The halogens are coloured, with typical penetrating odour. The colours deepen down the group. Fluorine is pale-yellow, chlorine is greenish- yellow, bromine is red and iodine is violet.

5.   They are volatile substances. Their volatility decreases down the group.

6.   All the halogens except fluorine, dissolve to some extent in water, fluorine reacts with water to give oxygen and hydrogen fluoride.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE HALOGENS

The halogens are very reactive elements. Their reactivity decreases down the group. Fluorine is the most reactive halogen. They are also strongly electronegative. Their Electronegativity decreases down the group.

1. As oxidizing agents. Halogens are strong oxidizing agent. They readily accept electrons. The oxidizing power decreases down a group.

2.    Reaction with metals: Halogens react with metals to form ionic compounds.

 2Na_(s)  +  F_2(g) →  2NaF_(s)

3.  Reaction with hydrogen: Fluorine explodes with hydrogen even in the dark, chlorine reacts slowly in the dark but explode in bright sunlight, bromine reacts with hydrogen in the presence of platinum catalyst, while iodine reacts partially with hydrogen on heating. Example

              H_2(g) + Cl_2(g) → 2HCl_(g)

Stability of the hydrogen halides decreases down the group. Hydrogen fluoride is a liquid with a boiling point of 19^OC. The other hydrogen halides are gases.        

4.    Reaction with water: Fluorine reacts vigorously with water to give off oxygen gas. 

Chlorine reacts very slowly with water to give a mixture of hydrochloric acid and oxochlorate (I) acid 

             Cl2(g) + H2O → HOCl + HCl

which later decomposes to give hydrochloric acid and oxygen gas.

            HOCl(aq) → HCl(aq) + O2(g)

 The oxygen gas given off by the oxochlorate (I) acid is responsible for the bleaching action of moist chlorine gas and chlorine water.

             H₂O_(g)  +  Cl_2(g)  → HCl_(aq)  +  HOCl_(aq)

CHLORINE

Chlorine is the most important member in the halogen family. It does not occur as free element in nature because it is too reactive. It is usually found in combined state as chlorides.

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF CHLORINE

1.  By the oxidation of concentrated HCl with strong oxidizing agent such as MnO₂ or KMnO₄

             MnO_2(s)+ 4HCl_(aq)→MnCl_2(aq)+ 2H₂O_(l) + Cl_2(g)

                                    

2.         By heating concentrated H₂SO₄ with a mixture of NaCl and MnO₂

                2NaCl_(s) + MnO_2(s) + 2H₂SO_4(aq) →Na₂SO_4(aq) + MnSO_4(aq) + H₂O_(l)+ Cl_2(g)

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

Chlorine is manufactured industrially by the electrolysis of brine and molten NaCl, MgCl₂ or CaCl₂

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1.   Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas with unpleasant chocking smell.

2. It is a poisonous gas.

3. It is about 2.5 times denser than air.

4. It is liquefied under a pressure of about 6atm.

5. It is moderately soluble in water.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1.   It is very reactive and forms electrovalent compound with metals and a single covalent bond compounds with non-metals.

2Na_(s)  + Cl_2(g)  →  2NaCl_(s)

Cl_2(g)  +   H_2(g) → 2HCl_(g)

2.  It displaces other halogens from solution of their acids and salts

Cl_2(g)  +   NaI_(aq)  →  2NaCl_(aq)    +    I_2(g)

3. It combines directly with other elements except oxygen, nitrogen carbon and the noble gases; to form chlorides

Ca_(s)   +  Cl_2(g)   → CaCl_2(s)

4. It displaces hydrogen from its compounds due to its strong affinity for hydrogen 

C₁₀H_12(l) + 8Cl_{2(g) →}10C_(s) + 16HCl_(g)

5. It is a powerful oxidizing agent: it oxidizes green Fe²⁺ to yellow or brown Fe³⁺

2FeCl_2(aq) + Cl₂ →2FeCl_3(aq)

6.  It is a bleaching agent:  The bleaching action of chlorine is due to its ability to react with water to form oxochlorate (I) acid which decomposes to release oxygen which in turn oxidizes the dye to form a colourless compound.

H₂O_{(l) +} Cl_2(g)  → HCl_{(aq) +}    HOCl_(aq)

HOCl_(aq)     →   HCl_(aq)  +  [O]

Dye   +   [O] →  [Dye + O]

^{Colored                    Colourless}            

7.  It reacts with hot concentrated NaOH solution to give a mixture of sodiumtrioxochlorate (V) and sodium chloride.

6NaOH  + 3Cl_2(g)    →  NaClO_3(aq)   + 5NaCl_(aq)  +  H₂O_(l)

^{hot concentrated                   Sodium trioxochlorate (V)}

With cold dilute solution of NaOH, a pale yellowish mixture of sodiumoxochlorate (I) and sodium chloride is formed.

2NaOH_(aq)  +  Cl_2(g)  →  NaOCl_(aq)  +  NaCl_(aq)  +  H₂O_(l)

^{cold dilute                             sodium oxochlorate(I)}           

8. It reacts with CaOH solutions to produce bleaching powder

Ca(OH)_2(aq)  +  Cl_2(g) →  CaOCl₂.H₂O_(s)

                                          ^{Bleaching powder}

TEST FOR CHLORINE

1.  It turns wet blue litmus paper pink and then bleaches it.

2.  It turns damped starch-iodide paper blue black.  

Chlorine turns starch-iodide paper blue black because it displaces iodine from the iodide. The iodine liberated then turns the starch blue.

USES OF CHLORINE

1. It is a powerful germicide (due to its oxidizing nature).

2.  It is used as a bleaching agent for cotton, wool, pulp etc.

3.  It is used in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and synthetic rubber.

4. It is used in the manufacture of organic compounds like  trichloromethan (CHCl_3),  and   tetrachloromethane (CCl₄

5. It is used in producing KClO₃, for making matches and fireworks.

6.  It is used for making NaClO_3, a weed killer.

7.  It is used for making acidified NaClO solution a domestic antiseptic.

COMPOUNDS OF CHLORINE

HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

Hydrogen chloride exists as a gas at room temperature. It dissolves readily in water to form hydrochloric acid. It occurs in traces in the air as industrial by-product and is considered as an air pollutant; but it can be easily washed down as acid rain since it is very soluble in water.

LABORATORY PREPARATION

The gas is prepared by the action of hot concentrated H₂SO₄ on any soluble chloride. Example    2NaCl_(s)  +  H₂SO_4(aq)  →  Na₂SO_4(aq)  +  2HCl_(g)

Note: NaHSO₄ is first formed at a lower temperature and later at higher temperature HCl gas is formed. The gas is dried by passing it through concentrated H₂SO₄ in another flask and collected.

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

Pure HCl gas can be produced in large scale by direct combination of hydrogen and chloride gas obtained from the electrolysis of brine.

     H_2(g)+ Cl_2(g)→2HCl_(g)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1.  Pure HCl gas is colourless and has sharp irritating smell

2. It turns damp blue litmus paper red

 3.  It is about 1.25times denser than air

4 It is very soluble in water, hydrochloric acid

5. It dissolved readily in non-polar solvent like chloroform and toluene. 

when HCl is dissolved in nonpolar solvents, the solution does not conduct electricity and has no acidic properties because hydrogen chloride which is a covalent molecule does not ionize when it dissolves in non-polar solvents. But it dissolves in water and ionizes. The ions formed in aqueous solution are responsible for the acidic property and conductivity of its aqueous solution. 

6.  It forms misty fumes in moist air because it dissolves in the moisture to form tiny droplets of HCl acid

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1.  Combustion: - Hydrogen does not support combustion 

2.  It combines directly with NH₃   producing dense white fumes of ammonium chloride

 HCl_(g) + NH_3(g) → NH₄Cl_(s)

3. It reacts with electropositive metals to form their respective chloride displacing hydrogen gas 

Zn_(s) +2HCl_(g) → ZnCl_2(s) + H_2(g)

TEST FOR HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

1.  Place a gas rod that has been dipped in ammonia solution over the gas jar containing the unknown gas, if a dense white fumes forms on the glass rod, then the gas is hydrogen chloride gas.

2.   Few drops of silver trioxonitrate (V) is added to the gas jar containing the unknown gas and shaken. If white precipitate of silver chloride is observed, then the gas is hydrogen chloride gas

CHLORIDES

Chlorides are normal salts formed when metallic ion replace the hydrogen ion in hydrochloric acid. Soluble Chlorides are prepared by neutralization reaction while insoluble are prepared by double decomposition method.

All Chlorides are soluble in water with except, AgCl, HgCl2, PbCl2

PROPERTIES

1.  Chlorides are stable to heat, that is, they are not decomposed by heat.  

They are recovered from solution by evaporation to dryness and sometimes by crystallization.

2. They react with hot concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid to produce hydrogen chloride gas.

2NaCl_(s)+H₂SO_4(aq) →Na₂SO_4(aq)+2HCl_(g)

and in the presence of a strong oxidizing agent, chlorine is produced.

ZnCl_2(s) + KMnO_4(s)+ 2H₂SO_4(aq) → ZnSO_4(aq)+ K₂SO_4(aq) + 2MnO_2(aq) + 2H₂O_(l)+Cl_2(g)

TEST FOR CHLORIDES 

Add some Few drops of AgNO_3(aq) to a solution of the sample in a test tube, if it forms   a white precipitate, now acidify the solution by adding dilute trioxonitrate acid if the white precipitate remains but readily dissolves in excess NH_3(aq) solution then a chloride ion is present.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. The bleaching action of chlorine is through the process 

a. Hydration 

b. Hydrolysis 

c. Reduction 

d. Oxidation 

2. When chlorine is passed through a sample of water, the pH of the water sample would be 

a. <7

b. =7

c. >7

d. 0

3. Halogens generally react with metals to form 

a. Alkalis.

b. Acids.

c. Bases.

d. Salts.

4. Potassium chloride solid does not conduct electricity because 

a. It is a covalent compound 

b. Stong cohesive forces make its ions immobile 

c. Strong cohesive forces make its molecules immobile 

d. Each of Potassium and chlorine ions has a noble gas structure.

5. Chlorine water is used as a bleaching agent because it is 

a. An acidic solution 

b. An alkaline solution 

c. An oxidizing agent 

d. A reducing agent 

6. Which of the following halogens is a liquid at room temperature 

a. Iodine

b. Chlorine 

c. Bromine

d. Fluorine.

7. Chlorine, bromine and iodine belong to the same group and 

a. Are gaseous at room temperature 

b. Form whit precipitate with AgNO3(aq)

c. React violently with hydrogen without heating.

d. React with alkali 

8. Which of the following chlorides is insoluble in water? 

a. AgCl

b. KCl

c. NH4Cl

d. ZnCl2

9. Which of the following statements about chlorine and iodine at room temperature is correct 

a. Chlorine is a gas and Iodine as solid 

b. Chlorine is a liquid and iodine is a gas.

c. Chlorine and iodine are gases 

d. Chlorine is solid and iodine is a liquid.

10. 

THEORY QUESTIONS

1. Draw and label a diagram to illustrate the preparation and collection of a dry sample of chlorine gas in the laboratory. 

1b. state two use of chlorine 

2a. Write the equation for reaction between chlorine gas and            

  i. Concentrated NaOH

   Ii. Dilut NaOH

b. Write the electronic configuration of the following atoms/ions: Cl, F^-, Br.

C.  Give three physical properties of the halogens

2a.   Explain one laboratory preparation of dry chlorine gas.

b. Name the method of collection of chlorine gas and explain why it can be collected by the method. 

3a.   Mention three physical properties of chlorine.  

b.  Using balanced equations, state THREE chemical properties 

C. Explain why hydrogen chloride in toluene does not conduct electricity but its aqueous solution  conducts  electricity.

4a.   Describe a test for a soluble chloride.

bGive three uses of chlorine gas.

C.  State TWO physical and TWO chemical properties of hydrogen chloride gas

5a.  An unknown gas is colourless, has an irritating smell, fumes in moist air and turns blue litmus paper red; describe how you will confirm the gas to be hydrogen chloride gas.

b. A solid chloride E which sublimed on heating reacted with an alkali F to give a choking gas G. G turned moist red litmus paper blue.  Identify E,F and G. 

PERIODIC TABLE at a glance

PERIODIC TABLE

 The periodic table is an arrangement of all the elements in a particular order.

The periodic law states that the elements on the periodic table are arranged in order of their atomic number.             OR 

The arrangements of the elements on the periodic table is a function of their atomic   number.

  I           II                  III       IV    V    VI      VII    VIII

1H								2He
3Li	4Be		5B	6C	7N	8O	9F	10Ne
11Na	12Mg		13Al	14Si	15P	16S	17Cl	18Ar
19K	20Ca

     → PERIOD  

            ↓

         GROUP

Each horizontal row is called a period

while the vertical column is called a group

The periodic table and the electronic configuration: -The largest principal quantum number of the electronic configuration of an element (the highest positive integer) represents the period to which the element belongs to while the number of electrons in the outermost shell of the configuration represents the group to which the element belongs. For example, 

Given two elements X and Y with the following electronic configuration X=1s²2s²2p⁴ and element   Y = 1s²2s²2p⁶3s². 

PERIOD

The largest number (positive integer = principal quantum number) in X is 2 (black bold) (i.e X contains 2 shells) and hence belongs to period 2. The largest number (principal quantum number) in Y is 3 (i.e Y contains 3 shells) and belongs to period 3. Simply put the number of electronic shells in an atom is equivalent to its period in in the Periodic Table.

GROUP

The total number of electrons in the outermost shell of X is 6 i.e  (2+4) and so it belongs to group 6 in the periodic table while Y belongs to group 2 (as it has only 2 electrons in its outermost shell).

TRENDS/ PERIODICITY IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Periodicity is the variation of properties of elements as you move across a period from left to right or as you go down a group.

These properties are also known a trends in the periodic table and they vary in intensity as you move across the period from group 1 to group 8 and down the group from top to bottom

These properties include: -

ATOMIC RADIUS: - This is the size of an atom. It is the distance between the nucleus of atom and the outermost shell.

It decreases across the period and increases down the group in the periodic table. 

Reason

Across the period as the atomic number increases the charge on the nucleus (nuclear charge) also increases, since the electrons are entering into the same shell, they will experience a greater attraction pulling them towards the center of the atom and hence a decrease in size of the atom across the period. But down the group new shells are being added and hence the atomic size increases automatically.

 

.

        Size of the atoms decreases as you move across the period but increases down the group

IONIC RADIUS: -For metals their atomic radius is larger than their ionic radius this is because metals ionize by the loss of the outermost or valence electrons and so the ion becomes one shell less than the atom.  Hence the smaller ionic radius.

                                 Atomic Radius vs Ionic Radius

                   
       here the sodium atom is larger in size than the sodium ion due to the loss of the outermost electron/shell. Similarly, the atomic radius of magnesium is smaller than the ionic radius of the magnesium ion

For non-metals their atomic radius is smaller than their ion radius, since non-metals ionize by gaining electros. A slight repulsion occurs between the gained electron and the other electrons in the valence shell. This results to a slight expansion of the ionic radius.     

              

    here the chlorine atom is smaller than the chloride ion due to the repulsion between the valence electrons and the gained electrons. Similarly, the atomic radius of sulphur atom is smaller the ionic radius of the sulphide ion

IONIZATION ENERGY: - This is the energy required to remove a valence electron from an atom in the gaseous state to form a mole of gaseous ions.

 It increases across the period (due to an increase in the nuclear attraction on the valence electrons across the period) and decrease down the group (as the valence electrons get farther away from the nucleus the become less attracted to the nucleus)

           

         Ionization Energy of the elements on the Periodic Table

                                

ELECTRONAGATIVITY: - This is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself in a molecule. It increases across the period and decrease down the group  

                                 

                          The electronegativities of the elements in the Periodic Table

ELCTRON AFFINITY: - This is the energy liberated when an electron enters an atom in the gaseous state to form a mole of negative ion. It increases across the period and decreases down the group.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY: - Sodium, magnesium and aluminum are good conductors of electricity because of the ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons they possess. Silicon is a semi-conductor, but not as good a conductor as graphite. All the other elements are electrical insulators.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS IN EACH GROUP

1.     GROUP I (s-block elements) (Alkali metals) 

             (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr)

i.    They are soft, malleable, and ductile

ii.   They ionize by loss of one electron

iii.  They are good reducing agents

iv.   They are good conductors of heat and electricity

v.    Their densities  generally increase down the group  

vi.    They react with cold water to displace hydrogen gas

            Na(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

2.     GROUP II (s-block) (Alkaline earth metals)

         (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra)

i.    They ionize by the loss of two electrons 

ii.   They are good conductors of heat and electricity

iii.   They are good reducing agents ( because they lose electrons readily)

iv.    Their melting and boiling points decreases generally down the group

v.      Their densities increases down the group

`3.     GROUP III (p-block)( The boron family)

         (B, Al, Ga, In and Ti)

  i.     Apart from boron all other members of the group are metals 

  ii.   They ionize by losing 3-electrons (common oxidation state is +3)

  iii.   Boiling point decreases down the group (but increases across the period

  iv.   They have high melting points

  vi.   They all form oxides when strongly heated in oxygen

  vii.     Thier reactivity increase down the group

 viii. They tarnish readily in air due to the formation of an oxide layer

4.       GROUP IV (p-block elements) (The Carbon family)

           (C, Si, Ge, Sn and Pb)

 i.      They have oxidation states of +2 and +4 but the +2 becomes more common

 ii.     C (non-metal) Si and Ge (metalloid) have covalent /bonding network within the network while                 Sn and Pb are metallic

 iii.     Their oxides range from acidic (CO2) to amphoteric (SiO2)  

 Iv    

5.      GROUP V (p-block elements) (The Nitrogen family)

                (N, P, As, Sb and Bi)

 i.  Members exhibit various oxidation state but as you go down the group the +3 

oxidation state becomes predominant

 ii.     There is a gradual change in the properties of the members of the group moving from individual or single molecules (N and P) to covalent networks (As and Sb) to metal (Bi)

6.       GROUP VI (p-block)( The Oxygen family)

 The elements in this group and their electronic configuration are shown below

Oxygen = 8: - 1s² 2s² 2p⁴

Sulphur = 16: - 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁴

Selenium= 34: - 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁴

Tellurium = 52: - 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁴

Polonium = 84: - 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 5d¹⁰ 5f¹⁴ 6s² 6p⁴

^{General Properties}

i.  They are known as oxygen family,

ii. They are all non -metals

iii. They ionize readily by gaining two electrons to form divalent negative ions.

vi. They are good oxidizing agent (because they readily accept electrons)

v. They do not react with Water but oxygen combine directly with hydrogen to form water.

vi. They do not conductor electricity

vii. They are electro-negative   

vii. They electrons acceptor

 

7.      GROUP VII: - (p-block) (Halogens)

i.  They ionize by gaining one electron

ii.  They are good oxidizing agents

iii.  They are coloured

         * Florine is yellowish 

         * Chlorine is greenish yellow 

         * Bromine is reddish-brown 

         * Iodine is violet

iv.  They dissolve in water to produce acids 

8.        GROUP VIII or 0 (Noble gases) (rare gases) (inert gases)

             (He, Ne, Ar , Kr, Xe, Rn)

i.  They exist freely as monoatomic molecules in the atmosphere, 

ii. They have no bonding electrons in the outermost shell.

iii. They are non-reactive elements, because their valence shell is completely filled.

iv. They exhibit similar properties among themselves.

v. They bear no resemblance to the halogens that come before them and the alkali metals that come after them. 

vi. Their melting and boiling points increase down the group

 vii. Their ionization energy decreases down the group from helium to radon.

TRANSITION METALS: (d-block elements)

     Transition metals are metals that have partially filled d-orbitals. These elements lie between group 2 and 3 from period 4 in the periodic table. They are metals with special properties. 

  Characteristics of transition elements

i. They have variable oxidation states

ii. They form complex ions

iii.  They form coloured ions

iv.  They are paramagnetic

 v. They are mainly used as catalysts

LANTHANIDES AND THE ACTINIDES

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 

  Use the following portion of the periodic table to answer questions 1 to 3

1. Which of the letters indicate elements which exist as diatomic gases.

a).  B and G

b).  A and  F

c).  C and A

d).  A and E

2. Which of the letters represents an alkaline earth metal?

a).  F

b).  E

c).  D

d).  C

3. Which of the following pairs of letters denotes elements containing the same number of electrons in their outermost shells?

a).  C and D

b).  E and F

c).  B and G

d). A and B

4. An element X has electronic configuration 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶4s². To which group of the periodic table does X belong?

(a). I   (b). II           (c). III           (d). IV

 

5. Which of the following sets of elements is arranged in order of increasing first ionization energy?

a). ₁₁Na, ₃Li, ₁₉K, ₃₇Rb

b). ₃₇Rb, ₁₉K, ₃Li, ₁₁Na

c).  ₃Li, ₁₉K, ₁₁Na, ₃₇Rb

d). ₃₇Rb, ₁₉K, ₁₁Na, ₃Li

6. Elements which belongs to the same group in the periodic table are characterized by

a). difference of +1 in the oxidation numbers of successive members 

b). Presence of the same number of outermost electrons I the respective atoms

c). difference of 14 atomic mass units between successive members 

d). presence of the same number of electron shells in the respective atoms.

7. Which of the following electronic configuration represents that of a noble gas 

a). 2,8,8,2

b). 2,8,2

c). 2,8

d). 2,6

8. Which of the following pairs of species contains the same number of electrons [ ₆C, ₈O, ₁₀Ne, ₁₁Na, ₁₂Mg ₁₃Al, ₁₇Cl]

a). Mg²⁺ and Al³⁺

b). Cl^- and Ne

c). Na⁺ and Mg

d). C and Cl^-

9. Which of the following statements about rare gases are correct? 

I. Their outermost shells are fully filled.    II. They are generally unreactive.    III. Their outermost shells are partially filled.    IV. They lone pairs of electrons in their outermost shell.

a).  I and II only 

b). II and III only

c). I, II and III only

d). I, II, III and IV

10. How many electrons are in the ion F^- ? [¹⁹₉F]

a). 8      (b) 9      (c). 10      (d) 19

11. Which of the following of properties of elements generally increase down a group in the periodic table?

a). Electron affinity 

b). Electronegativity

c). Ionic radius 

d). Ionization energy

12. In which of the following atoms is the ionic radius larger than the atomic radius?        [₁₁Na, ₁₂Mg, ₁₃Al, ₁₇Cl]

a). Aluminum

b). Chlorine

c). Magnesium

d). Sodium

13. Which of the following properties is characteristics of the halogens?

a). Ability to accept electrons readily.

b). Ability to donate electrons readily.

c). Ability to form basic oxides. 

d). Formation of coloured compounds.

14. 

THEORY QUESTIONS 

1. The electronic configuration of five elements represented by the letters P, Q, R, S and T are indicated below

P --- 1s²2s²2p²

Q --- 1s²2s²2p⁴

R --- 1s²2s²p⁶

S --- 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²

T --- 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁵

 Without identifying the elements, state which of them

i).  Belongs to group VI in the periodic table

ii).  Is strongly metallic in character

iii).  Readily ionizes by gaining one electron

iv).  Contains two unpaired electrons in the ground state atom.

v).   Readily loses two electrons during chemical bonding

vi).  Does not participate readily in chemical reactions

vii).   Is an s-block element

bi). Copy and complete the table below as appropriate

Particle	Number of Protons	Number of Electrons	Number of Neutrons
11H	1	1
2713Al3+
168O			8

ii). Give the reason why atomic radius increases down a group in the periodic table but decreases from left to right.

iii). State three properties of transition element. [waec]

2. The electronic configuration of atoms of elements A, B, C and D are given as follows

a). 1s²2s²2p²

b). 1s²2s¹

c).  1s²2s²2p⁶

d). 1s22s22p1

ai.  Arrange the elements in order of increasing atomic size, giving reason

ii).  State which of the elements

  I. is divalent 

II. Contains atom with two unpaired electrons in the ground state.

III). Readily loses one electron from its atom during chemical bonding

IV)  Belongs to group III in the Periodic Table.

2(a)(i). List three properties of elements which increases generally across a period in the periodic table. 

(ii). Explain briefly why there is general increase on the first ionization energies of the elements across the period in the periodic table 

ISOMERISM at a glance

 

ISOMERISM IN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Isomerism is defined as the occurrence of two or more compounds with the same molecular formular but different molecular structures. 

The different molecular structures are known as Isomers.

Isomers may belong to the same homologous series ( having the same functional group) or may belong to different homologous series (having different functional group)

Isomers with the same functional group, (i.e. belonging to the same homologous series) have similar chemical properties while isomers having different functional group (i.e. belonging to different homologous series) have different physical and chemical properties.

Example:- the formula C2H6O has two isomers 

1. Ethanol an Alkanol with molecular formula CH3CH2OH has a melting point of 78 degree celçius and is a liquid at room temperature 

     H    H
      |      |
H--C--C--OH
      |      |
    H.   H

and 

2. an Alkoxy compound with molecular formula CH3OCH3 which is a gaseous at room temperature

      H       H
      |         |
H--C--O--C--H
      |         |
      H       H

TYPES OF ISOMERISM

(i) Structural isomerism

(ii) Stereo or geometric Isomerism

(iii) Optical isomerism

 

(I) STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM

This is the occurrence of two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but different molecular structures 

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM

(a) Chain isomerism: in this case, the isomer differs in the way the carbon atoms are arranged in the molecule. Eg

 CH3CH2CH2CH3  CH3CHCH3   
n-butane                                   |                                                                   
                                              CH3  
                            2-methylpropane (isobutane)

(‘n’ stands for the normal compound while ‘iso’ means the isomer of the normal compound).

NOTE: - Isomerism begins from the 4th member of the alkane homologous series, that is, butane, and as the number of carbon atoms increases the number of isomers also increases. For example, butane has two isomers normal-butane and 2-methyl propane, pentane (C5H12) has three isomers:  n-pentane, 2-methylbutane and 2,2-dimethylpropane.            

  I.  CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3.  (n-pentane)

              CH3
              |
II.  CH3CHCH2CH3  (2-methylbutane)

                                     

III.              CH3
                    |        
          CH3-C-CH3
                    |
                  CH3        2,2-dimethylpropane

Three isomers for pentane 

Another example is hexane (C6H14)

I.  CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

               n-hexane

          

              CH3
              |
II.  CH3CHCH2CH2CH3    2-methylpentane

III.                        CH3
                              |
              CH3CH2CHCH2CH3          3-methylpentane

                   CH3
                      |
IV.      CH3CCH2CH3    2,2-dimethylbutane
                  |
                  CH3

                                     

                  CH3
                    |
V.      CH3CHCHCH3    2,3-dimethylbutane
                        |
                      CH3  

Hexane has 5 isomers 

(b) position isomerism: Position isomers are those that have a substituent in different position on the same carbon skeleton. Example

                CH3CH2CH2OH             CH3CHCH3
                    propan-1-ol                             |
                                                                    OH
                                                             propan-2-ol

(c) Functional Group isomerism: These are isomers having the same molecular formular but different functional groups. They belong to different homologous series.

e.g.
                      H
                    /
(i)  CH3CH2C                          CH3-CCH3
                    \\                                ‖  
                      O                              O
     Propanal  (an aldehyde)       propan-2-one (a ketone)

(ii) CH3CH2OH                                  CH3-O-CH3 

      Ethanol  ( Alkanol)                Methoxymethane (dimethyl ether) (Alkoxy compounds)

(2) STEREO ISOMERISM OR GEOMETRIC ISOMERISM

In this type of isomerism, compounds have the same molecular formular but differ only in the way their atoms are arranged in space.

TYPES   STEREO ISOMERISM

(a) Geometrical isomerism: This type of isomerism is found in compounds having either a double bond, triple bond or a ring structure. These multiple bonds prevent the free rotation about a carbon=carbon atom. that is, the carbon atoms are not cylindrically symmetrical. There are two forms of geometric isomers, the Cis and Trans isomer. For example, but-2-ene has two geometric isomer which are trans-but-2-ene and cis-but-2-ene as shown below.

when naming geometric isomers, you look at the substituents, where the substituents (group other than Carbon atoms) are on the same side of the double bond, that isomer is named the Cis isomer and when the substituents are on opposite sides of the double bond, we put a trans- isomer, but the names are the same

   H               CH3                H             H         
        \           /                                   \         /
          C=C                                       C=C
        /         \                                    ∕         ∖
  CH3          H                              CH3       CH3

Trans-but-2-ene                          Cis-but-2-ene

 

      H          Br                 H           H
        \         /                         \        /
          C=C                            C=C
        /       \                          /      \  
  Br              H                    Br      Br
Trans-1,2-dibromoethene       Cis-1,2-dibromoethene                    

   C1OOH.  C4OOH              H           COOH
      \           /                             \         /      
        C2=C3                              C=C   
      ∕         ∖                            /        \
COOH       H                      H             H
Trans-butenedioic acid            Cis-butenedioic acid

(b) Optical isomerism: Optical isomers   are isomers that have the same molecular and structural formular but cannot be superimposed on each other. In other words, an optical isomer is one which is not super-imposable on its mirror image. An optical isomer has at least one carbon atom which has four different groups or atoms attached to it. Such a carbon atom (surrounded by four different atoms /group) is called chiral carbon or chiral center. E.g. 2-hydroxylpropanoic acid (Lactic acid).

                           CH3
                            |
             HO — *C— H
                            |
                           COOH

                  The Asterix C-atom is called a chiral C-atom because it is surrounded by four (4) different groups.

            In glucose, there are several chiral carbon atoms.

                                          H
                                          ∣
                                          C = O
                                          |
                                H — *C —OH
                                            |
                              OH —*C —H
                                            |
                                H — *C— OH
                                          |
                                H —*C —OH
                                          |
                                H — C—H
                                          |
                                          OH

Optical isomers are also called Enantiomers.

Isomers that belong to the same homologous series (same functional group) have similar chemical properties but may have different physical properties. But isomers which belong to different homologous series (different functional group) have different chemical and physical properties.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 

1. Isomerism is the phenomenon in which compounds have

A. same molecular mass only

B. same empirical formula only

C. same molecular formula but different structures

D. different molecular formula but same structure

2. Which of the following pairs are isomers?

A. CH₄ and C₂H₆

B. C₂H₆ and C₃H₈

C. C₄H₁₀ and C₄H₁₀

D. C₂H₄ and C₂H₆

3. Butane and 2-methylpropane are examples of

A. position isomers

B. functional isomers

C. chain isomers

D. geometric isomers

4. The two main classes of isomerism are

A. structural and stereoisomerism

B. chain and position

C. optical and functional

D. alkane and alkene

5. Which compound shows chain isomerism?

A. C₂H₆

B. C₃H₈

C. C₄H₁₀

D. CH₄

6. Intermediate Level

Position isomerism occurs due to different

A. molecular formula

B. carbon chain length

C. functional groups

D. positions of functional group or substituent

7. Ethanol and dimethyl ether are

A. chain isomers

B. position isomers

C. functional group isomers

D. optical isomers

8. Which of the following shows functional isomerism?

A. Propane and propene

B. Ethanol and ethanoic acid

C. Propanal and propanone

D. Butane and butene

9. Geometric isomerism is also known as

A. structural isomerism

B. optical isomerism

C. cis–trans isomerism

D. functional isomerism

10. Which compound can show geometric isomerism?

A. Ethane

B. Propane

C. But-2-ene

D. Methane

11. Which of these has the highest number of chain isomers?

A. C₃H₈

B. C₄H₁₀

C. C₅H₁₂

D. C₂H₆

12. Optical isomerism is caused by

A. double bonds

B. presence of aromatic ring

C. chiral carbon atom

D. branching

13. The pair CH₃CH₂CHO and CH₃COCH₃ are

A. chain isomers

B. position isomers

C. functional isomers

D. geometric isomers

14. Which statement is true about isomers?

A. They always have the same boiling point

B. They always have identical properties

C. They may have different physical and chemical properties

D. They must belong to different homologous series

15. The number of structural isomers for C₄H₈ (alkenes only) is

A. 1

B. 2

C. 3

D. 4

THEORY QUESTIONS 

1.(a)(i)Define isomerism.

(ii). What are isomers?

(iii). State two differences   between structural and stereoisomerism.

1(b)(i). Explain chain isomerism with one example.

(ii)Explain position isomerism with one example.

(iii). What is functional group isomerism?

1(c)(i). Define geometric isomerism.

State the condition necessary for geometric isomerism.

What is optical isomerism?

Give two examples of compounds that show functional isomerism.

Structured Questions

(a) Define structural isomerism

  (b) List three types of structural isomerism

  (c) Give one example each

(a) What is chain isomerism?

  (b) Draw the structural formulas of the isomers of C₄H₁₀

(a) Explain functional isomerism

  (b) Show the structures of ethanol and dimethyl ether

(a) Distinguish between cis and trans isomers

  (b) Use but-2-ene to illustrate

Draw and name all the structural isomers of C₅H₁₂.

Long Essay Questions

(a) Define isomerism

(b) Describe the different types of structural isomerism

(c) Give two examples for each type

Explain geometric isomerism using suitable diagrams and discuss its importance in chemistry.

Write short notes on:

(i) Chain isomerism

(ii) Position isomerism

(iii) Functional group isomerism

(iv) Optical isomerism

List the structural isomers of C₄H₈ and classify them.

Describe the differences between structural and stereoisomerism with examples.